Germany's interior minister has blamed 'violent Left-wing groups and troublemakers from the migrant community' after a weekend of demonstrations descended into rioting and looting.
Tens of thousands of people took to the streets in dozens of cities calling for better education and lower living costs, as a protest movement that began among secondary school students in France spread across the border for the first time.
The German protests were organised by the campaign group 'Gen Z regelt', meaning 'Gen Z takes charge'.
Among their demands were more funding for education, policies against the rising cost of living, steps to fight climate change and a halt to efforts to reintroduce conscription.
Alexander Dobrindt, the interior minister, promised severe punishments and credited a strong police response with preventing worse violence.
'The rioters and looters will be identified and held accountable,' Dobrindt told the Bild tabloid on Sunday. 'This breach of the peace must be followed by tough penalties.
'Excesses of violence like those in Paris were prevented thanks to our highly committed police forces.'
He accused 'violent left-wing groups and troublemakers from the migrant community' of hijacking the otherwise peaceful demonstrations, without providing details.
Protesters light smoke flares after a demonstration organised by 'GenZ regelt' in Berlin on October 31
A person wearing a clown mask uses a traffic sign to smash a store window in Frankfurt on Saturday, October 31
A person dressed in a Batman costume stands in front of a burning trash dumpster in downtown Frankfurt on Saturday, October 31
Organisers claim around 120,000 people took part in the protests, which were mainly peaceful apart from the violence that broke out in cities such as Frankfurt, Berlin, Hamburg and Cologne.
Masked rioters in Frankfurt threw fireworks, stones, bottles and petrol bombs, injuring more than 100 police officers.
One officer was hit in the face with a stone, knocking out several of his teeth.
At least five shops were looted and 17 damaged, including a gun store.
Frankfurt police put the group of violent individuals at up to 1,500 people.
Officers arrested 54 people aged between 13 and 29, according to Roman Poseck, interior minister of the state of Hesse.
The majority of those arrested were German citizens, though many of those involved in the disturbances had migrant backgrounds, Poseck added.
'Police currently estimate that they are dealing with between 1,000 and 1,500 violent troublemakers, predominantly from a migrant background,' he said.
Police run past a trash dumpster set on fire by protesters in downtown Frankfurt on Saturday, October 31
People smash the windows of a store in downtown Frankfurt on Saturday, October 31
People take part in a protest under the slogan 'GenZ Has Had Enough!' in Berlin, Germany, on October 31
Ines Schwerdtner, co-leader of The Left party, said that 'small groups of frustrated people' had triggered the riots after demonstrations that were 'peaceful and justified'.
The Gen Z regelt group told the German Press Agency: 'We had no influence on what happened after the demonstrations ended. Today, 100,000 people showed what they are taking to the streets for.'
French students returning from autumn break blocked some high schools on Monday, determined to reinvigorate a protest movement despite government concessions during the holiday.
The blockades came after hundreds of thousands of people, including students, took to the streets across the country on Saturday for a third consecutive weekend of demonstrations.
Petrol bombs were hurled at police officers, engulfing three in flames. They were treated for minor injuries and continued their duties.
A photograph of an officer with his leg on fire during a clash with protesters in Paris on Saturday prompted widespread outrage.
Laurent Nuñez, France's interior minister, described the attacks as 'attempted murder' and accused hard-Left extremist groups of using 'extraordinary' violence against the security forces.
Prosecutors launched an investigation over 'attempted murder of persons vested with public authority'.
The prosecutor's office said that about 15 explosive devices had been hurled at police.
Many demonstrators wore Halloween costumes as they marched through French cities.
After hours of clashes between police and protesters, a group dressed in Halloween costumes gather once again in La Plaine Square on October 31 in Marseille, France
Many demonstrators wore Halloween costumes as they marched through French cities
A protestor waves a French flag among tear gas smokes while taking part in a nationwide demonstration over the rising cost of living and inequality organised by Yellow Vest movement, labour unions and high school and university students, in Lyon, central-eastern France on October 31
France has been rocked by widespread anger over the rising cost of living and inequality
Organisers said nearly half a million took part, including 200,000 in Paris, but the interior ministry put the nationwide turnout at 320,000
Organisers said nearly half a million took part, including 200,000 in Paris, but the interior ministry put the nationwide turnout at 320,000. Its figures for previous gatherings had been accurate.
The ministry said groups had attempted to enter the centres of cities including Bordeaux, Toulouse and Marseille 'with the aim of carrying out vandalism and looting'.
Unrest also took place in Lyon.
Overnight curfews were imposed in central Paris neighbourhoods until 6am on Sunday while around 70,000 police officers were deployed in an attempt to prevent a repeat of the widespread violence on October 17.
Demonstrations took place in Lisbon against a government housing bill that would make evictions easier and stop rent caps on new leases.
Hundreds of protesters occupied Rossio Square after a march through the Portuguese capital on Saturday, erecting more than 50 tents.
Police officers with batons and shields moved in early on Sunday after issuing multiple warnings.
At Dom Joao I Square in Porto, a smaller camp was dismantled.
In response to the unrest, Luis Montenegro, the Portuguese prime minister, said he was willing to amend the bill before a final vote but would not withdraw it.
Jose Luis Carneiro, the Socialist party leader, encouraged the government to hold talks with opposition parties and marchers rather than 'arrogantly imposing its views, sometimes even with authoritarian overtones'.
In Albania, demonstrations in Tirana escalated into violence on Saturday night after a peaceful beginning.
Dozens of masked protesters hurled petrol bombs and paving stones at police and set fire to rubbish bins.
Police said they arrested nearly 270 minors.
The unrest began in May after construction began on a luxury resort linked to President Donald Trump's family in a protected nature reserve.
They have intensified in recent weeks, broadening into calls for the resignation of Edi Rama, the prime minister, and demonstrations over failings in the health service and a lack of opportunities for young people.
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